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HISTORY OF  TURKEY  AND  ISLAM. 
The Republic of Turkey, founded in 1923, has its roots in two historical  sources deep in the depths of the past. One of these resources inherited by  modern Turkey is the successful and shining history of the Turks over a time  frame of more than 4,000 years. The other is the fact that Turks have been  settled in Anatolia since the 11th century.
 The Huns
 The first Turkish tribe that is mentioned in history is the Huns. Clear records about the Huns made  their appearance in the 8th century B.C. Chinese sources refer to the Huns as  Hiung-nu and in time, some of the Huns migrated to the West.
 The Gokturks
Founded in 552 AD by Bumin Khan, the Gokturks engaged in widespread  diplomatic activity. The famed Orhun epitaphs from this period are made up of the  tombstone
inscriptions of Tonyukuk (d.720), Kültigin (d.731) and Bilge Kagan (d.734)
 The Uygurs
The rule of the Göktürks was brought to an end in the year 745 by the  Uygurs, who were of the same ethnic stock as themselves. In this manner all the  Turks who had converged under the banner of the Göktürks were dispersed to  that of the Uygurs that the agricultural basin where they lived became known as Turkistan. In the year 1229, the Mongols put an end to Uygur  sovereignty; the Uygurs however, became their cultural and political mentors.
The Turks and Islam
Contacts between the Turks and Arabs commenced at the beginning of the 8th century and some of the Turks began to favour Islam. However the  pro-Arab policies of the Omayads (661-750 A.D) restricted these relations  somewhat. Later, many Moslem Turks took office in the Abbside government and because of  this, great interest in the Islamic world spread among the Turks beyond the  River Ceyhun. Commercial caravans also played a major role in the spread of  Islam into the steppes of Central Asia. The Turks became fully Moslem by the 10th  century, and this resulted in the achievement to political unity. Following these developments, the first Moslem Turkish state was formed by the Karahans.
 The Karahans
The Karahans ruled between 990-1212 in Turkistan and Maveraünnehir. The  reign of the Karahans is especially significant from the point of view of  Turkish culture and art history. It is during this period that mosques, schools,  bridges and caravansarays were constructed in the cities. Buhara and Samarkand  became centres of learning. In the period, the Turkish language found the means  to develop. Among the most important works of the period is Kutadgu Bilik  (translated as "The Knowledge That Gives Happiness") written by Yusuf Has Hacib, between the years 1069-1070.
 
 The Ghaznavids
The Ghaznavi state was formed in the year 963 by the Turkish ruler  Sevuktekin and is one of the first Moslem Turkish states and worked relentlessly  for the expansion of Islam in India. The Ghaznavids finally collapsed in 1186  and were assimilated by the Oguz.
The Turkish scholar Ebu Reyhan el-Beyruni makes this period an important  one within Islamic cultural history and wrote the famed work by the poet  Firdevsi, the Şehname, was also written in this period
(A.D. 1009)
 The Seljuks
The Oğuz, who destroyed the Ghaznavid state, succeeded in bringing  Anatolia, Iraq, the southern part of the Caucasus, Azerbaijan and the north of  Iran under Turkish rule. The Oğuz had first formed the Gökütrk Empire in the 6th  century; after the expansion of Islam among the Turks, but among the Turks the  Oguz came to be called the Turkmens.
Tuğrul Bey and Çağrı (Çakır) Bey were the  grandsons of Seljuks whose name the Seljuks Dynasty adopted. In their time they, and the Oğuz,  known as the Seljuks in history, subdued Horasan, defeated the Ghaznavid ruler  Mesud in Dandanakan Battle and established the Great Seljuk empire in 1040.
In 1071, Alp Arslan (1063-1072) fought the  battle of Malazgirt and having defeated the Byzantine Emperor's forces in this battle opened the doors  of Anatolia to the Moslem Turk.
The year 1071 is considered to be the  beginning of the Turks and that of Islam Anatolia. It is following this date that the Turks fully conquered  the whole of Anatolia and established the Anatolian Seljuk state there as a  part of the great Seljuk Empire.
The first schooling institutions, the Moslem theological medreses, were formed in Anatolia during the time of Kılıç Arslan (1153-1192), one in  Konya and the other in Aksaray. Following the establishment of these two  medreses the medreses of Syrcaly in Konya (1242-1243), Karatay (1251), İnce Minareli (1251-1253), Atabekkiye (after 1251-1268), Gökmedrese in Sivas (1271),  Buruciye (1271-1272), Çifte Minareli (1271), and the Cacoglu in Kirsehir (1272)  were established.
The Seljuks also attributed much importance  to the medical sciences and in almost all their cities medical institutions called Darush-Shifa,  Darul-Afiye and Darus-Sihna and hospitals were set up. The main medical treatment  centres are the Gevher Nesibe in Kayseri (1205), the Izzettin I Keykavus in  Sivas (1217), the Torumtay in Amasya (1266), the Muinuddin Pervane in Tokat  (1275) and the Pervaneoglu Ali in Kastamonu (1272).
Because of the Persian influence coming from  Iran among the intellectuals, the administrators, the men of arts and the traders, the Anatolian  Seljuk state became increasingly affected by Iranian culture and language.
   
The Beyliks - The Period Principalities
Political unity in Anatolia was disrupted  from the time of the collapse of the Anatolia Seljuk State at the beginning of the 14th century (1308),  when until the beginning of the 16th century each of the regions in the  country fell under the domination of Beyliks (Principalities). Eventually, the  Ottoman Principality which destroyed all the other Principalities and restored  political unity in Anatolia, was established in the Eskişehir, Bilecik and Bursa  areas.
On the other hand, the area in central Anatolia east of the Ankara-Aksaray line as far as the area of Erzurum remained under the administration of  the Ilhani General Governor until 1336. The infighting in Ilhan gave the principalities in Anatolia their complete independence. In addition to  this, new Turkish principalities were formed in the localities previously under  Ilhan occupation.
During the 14th century, the Turkomans, who made up the western Turks, started to re-establish their previous political sovereignty in the  Islamic world.
Rapid developments in the Turkish language  and culture toot place during the time of the Anatolia Principalities. In this period, the Turkish  language began to be used in the sciences and in literature, and became the official  language of the Principalities. New medreses were established and progress was  made in the medical sciences during this period.
Gülşehri, Nesimi (d.1404) and ahmedi  (1325-1412) are the prominent Turkish language poets of the 15th century.
 The Ottomans
The Ottoman Principality was founded by a Turkoman tribe living on the  Turkish-Byzantine border. The geographic location of the principality and the weak state  of the Byzantines combined to make the Ottoman principality the strongest state  within the Islamic world by the 14th century.
When Fatih Sultah Mehmet II. conguered the Byzantine capital in 1453, the Ottoman state became the strongest of the time. The tolerant approach  taken by Fatih Sultan Mehmet II toward other religions and to the adherents  thereof became a tradition accepted by his successors. Following the capture of  Istanbul, the Orthodox Church was freed from obedience to the Catholic Church and  granted its independence.
On the other hand, the technical superiority of the Ottoman army began to be evident during the reign of Selim I. The Ottomans has added, in addition  to the major part of east Anatolia, the lands considered holy in the Islamic  world-Mecca and Medine and their territories.
The brightest period of the Ottoman State  was during the reign of Sultan Suleyman (1520-1555) when the boundaries of the Empire spread from the  outskirts of Vienna to the Persian Gulf and from the Crimea to an expanded north  Africa as far as Ethiopia.
The Ottoman empire continued to acquire  territory until the middle of the 17th century. In 1683, it suffered its first major defeat in the siege  of Vienna.
As the losses of land and sought continued, the Ottoman Empire sought salvation in a series of reform movements and established education  institutions taking after the western institutions which had shown great developments  after the Renaissance.
The declaration of the "Tanzimat" Reform  movement in 1839 is considered a major link in the chain of modernization events which had  continued unabated since the beginning of the 17th century.
The Tanzimat Decree is considered to be a  kind of constitution which gave Turkey the means to enter road to contemporary civilization.
The principles inherent in the Tanzimat  Reform Decree thereby laid the basis for the constitutional regime of modern Turkey and the realization of  secularism.
Despite many internal problems and  disturbances during the reign of Abdülaziz (1861-1876) the effects of westernization in society became even more  evident. Namık Kemal, Ziya Pasha, Mustafa Fazıl Pasha and his friends published  the newspaper "Hürriyet" (Freedom) in London in the year 1864. The literary themes of the newspaper later gave way to political issues.  Although it is because of these trends that the first constitution was promulgated  under the leadership of Mithat Pasha in 1876, Sultan Abdülhamid II (1876-1909)  used the Ottoman-Russian war (1877-78) as an excuse to dissolve Parliament and effectively put an end to this constitutional period. The Ottoman empire  entered the First World War in 1914 on the side of the allied powers.
The Ottoman State emerged defeated from the war, together with its allies, and was compelled to sign the Mudrow Armistice on October 30, 1918. Also  among the terms of the armistice was a provision that the cocupying powers  might occupy areas deemed to be of strategic importance; the powers started  therefore to occupy Anatolia on November 1, 1918 according to these terms.
On May 15, 1919, the Greeks occupied Yzmir. A national resistance movement commenced. In many areas of the  country the Society For Defence of Rights (Müdafaa-i Hukuk) started to spring up, and the military arm of the society, called  the Kuvayi Milliye. Started to take action.
The resistance movement was, until Mustafa Kemal landed at Samsun, sporadic and disorganized; under his leadership the resistance became cohesive,  its forces progressively turned into an organized army and the movement  became a full scale war of independence.
The First World War and the Mondros Cease-Fire Agreement
The Ottomans joined the First World War in  1914 as a result of fait accompli. During the war, the empire suffered a loss of four hundred thousand  casualties and being defeated by the Allies, signed an armistice at Mondros on  October 30, 1918. Following this armistice, the Ottomans were forced to sign the  Sevres Treaty on August 10, 1920 which aimed at dividing the lands of the  empire.
The Turkish nation in protest to the Mondros  Armistice and the Sevres Treaty started its War of Liberation under the command of Mustafa Kemal  Atatürk. After the victory, the Turkish Grand National Assembly in Ankara abolished the  office of the Sultan on November 1, 1922, thus ending 631 years of Ottoman rule  in the world.
Efforts to Disintegrate the Empire
The Ottoman Empire collapsed on October 30,  1918, when the Mondros Armistice was signed, after the Ottoman state and its allies had lost the Great  War. The treaty had very severe terms some of which were: The Straits of the  Bosphorus and the Dardanelles would be open to the ships of the Entente Powers;  Turkish military fortifications would be occupied; the Ottoman Army would be  demobilized; Turkish warships would be surrendered to the Entente Powers; all means  of comunication and ammunition stores would be controlled by the Entente  Powers; all Turkish institutions and transport could be used by the Entente  Powers. Article 7 of the Treaty, which was the most intolerable of all, stated  "In the event of a situation threatening their security, the Entente Powers  have the right to occupy any area of strategic importance". According to this,  the Entente Powers could occupy the country when they wished. In fact, after  a short period, the Entente Powers began to occupy the country for trivial  reasons. The occupation began on November 1,1918. They first landed their troops at  Mosul, Iskenderun, the Straits of the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles, then they  occupied various parts of Anatolia and Thrace. Meanwhile, England had proposed  that the straits would have an international stutus; some Arab and Armaneian  regions would cede from Turkey and a small part of land would be left to the  Sultan with Konya or Bursa as the capital. In accordance with this, the Entente  Powers had Greek troops landed at Izmir on May 15, 1919, under the protection of  their own battleships. With this incident, the Ottoman State actually collapsed,  and its legal existence was to be determined at the peace conference according  to the wishes of the Entente Powers.
Subversive Organizations
Shortly after the Mondros Treaty, many organizations and societies appeared which were against national independence. Besides such pro-Ottoman and  caliphate societies as the "Sulh ve Selameti Osmaniye Firkasi (Peace and Ottoman Salvation Party), the "Teali Islam Cemiyeti" (Moslem Promotion Society), the "Hürriyet ve Itilaf Firkasi" (Liberty and Entente Party), there were other societies of the minorities such as the "Mavrimira" and the "Pontus Society". Their subversive activities during the First World War continued after the Treaty in order to prevent Turks from  establishing a Notional State in Anatolia.
.....................................................................................etc.
 
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